The peanut (Arachis hypogaea), better known worldwide as groundnut
and to lesser extent as earthnut, monkeynut, and goobers is not a true
nut but rather an annual legume much like the bean or a pea (Nwokolo
1996). The peanut plant is unusual because it flowers above ground and
pods containing one to five seeds are produced underground. Its seeds
are rich source of edible oils and contain 40 -50% fat, 20 - 50 % protein,
and 10 to 20 % carbohydrate. The seeds are nutritious and contain vitamin
E, niacin, folacin, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, iron, riboflavin,
thiamine, potassium etc. Peanuts, peanut oil and peanut protein meals
constitute an important segment of world trade in oilseeds and products.
Peanut is the fifth most important oilseed in the world. Peanut is used
for different purposes: food (raw, roasted or boiled, cooking oil),
animal feed (pressings, seeds, green material, straw), and industrial
raw material.
Origin
The archaeological records supports its cultivation between 300 and
2500 BC in Peruvian desert oases (Weiss 2000, Smith 2002). Although
no archaeological evidence of peanuts has been uncovered in the area
due its tropical climate, the Gurarani region of Paraguay, eastern Bolivia,
and central Bolivia showed the greatest diversity of wild varieties
of Arachis species. The cultivated peanut was likely first domesticated
in the valleys of the Paraguay and Prarana rivers in the Chaco region
of South America (Fig 1). The plant is believed to have been originally
domesticated by predecessors of the Arawak- speaking peoples who now
live in its homeland.
Fig 1: Centers of origin and diversity
(Source: Weiss 2000)
The first written account of the crop is found with the Spanish entry
into Hispanola in 1502, where the Arawak cultivated under the name of
mani (Sauer 1993). Records from Brazil around 1550 showed the crop was
known there with the name mandubi. Early Spanish and Portuguese accounts
record the presence of crop through of the West Indies and South America.
Diffusion
Today groundnut is widely distributed and has adapted in various countries
of the World. The most important countries for production are India,
China, USA, West and Southern Africa, and Brazil.
The diffusion of crop can be traced along the varietal lines (fig 2).
Peanut is usually divided into 4 varieties: 'Virginia', 'Peruvian',
Spanish', and 'Valencia'.
Fig 2 peanut center of origin (solid line),
area of intensive cultivation (dotted line) and areas of maximum Cultivation
(shaded)
(Source: Weiss 2000)
Krapovickas (1969) provided a history of introduction of these different
varieties since 1500. The Virginia variety was taken from the Antilles
to Mexico soon after 1500 and then quickly introduced to West Africa.
The variety was introduced to eastern North America from both the West
Indies and West Africa in the 17th century.
The
Peruvian variety was taken to the Philippines by Spanish galleons and
from there to southeastern China before 1600, where it was known as
'foreign beans'. It spread from there throughout China and from there
to Japan where it was known as Chinese beans'. Chinese settlers were
probably responsible for introduction to the rest of Southeast Asia
and Indonesia. Peanuts arrived in India most likely from Africa as one
of the plant's Indian names was "Mozambique bean".
The 'Spanish' was almost certainly taken from Brazil to Africa by Portuguese
shortly after their contact with Brazil in 1500. There it mixed with
'Virginia' and produced the great diversity of African landraces. The
'Spanish' race was evidently introduced into Spain in the late 18th
century, from Brazil via Lisbon. From Spain it was introduced to Southern
France and finally to the USA in 1871. The Valencia was probably introduced
to Spain from Cordoba, Argentina about 1900 and was introduced to USA
from Valencia about 1910.
Peanuts did not reach England and France until long after Spanish and
Portuguese had first encountered them. The first located use of the
term peanut is found in the account of an Englishman's visit to the
United States in 1794 (Smith 2002).
World Production
The peanut is one of the world's most popular and universal crops, cultivated
in more than 100 countries in all six continents (Nwokolo 1996). China
and India are the largest producers (Table 1). A substantial proportion
of total production is consumed by growers, without ever being recorded
(Weiss 2000). Although USA had been third largest producer in the world
until mid - 1990s, Nigeria is the third largest producer in the world
now. Israel ranks the top in yield per unit area with average yield
of 71,111 kg/ha. Figure 3 shows the groundnut production trend in the
world since 1961. Fig 4 and 5 shows the percentage of groundnut production
and area under cultivation in major groundnut producing countries in
2002 respectively.
Table 1. Groundnut Production,
2002
Fig 3. World groundnut production trend (Source
FAO 2003)
Fig 4 Percentage of groundnut production in
major groundnut producing countries
Fig 5 Percentage of groundnut cultivation area by
major groundnut producing countries
References
Kaprovickas, A. 1969. The Origin, Variability, and Spread of the Groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea). In The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants
and Animals. P.J. Ucko and J.W. Dimbleby, eds. Pp. 427-441. Chicago:
Aldine.
Nwokolo, E. 1996 Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.). In Food and Fee from
Legumes and Oilseeds. E. Nwokolo and J. Smartt, eds. Pp. 49-63. New
York: Chapman and Hall.
Smith, A.F. 2002 Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea.
Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Weiss, E.A. 2000 Oilseed Crops. London: Blackwell Science.
Contributed by Govinda Basnet
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Vegetative growth
The peanut Arachis hypogaea is an annual legume, unusual in its genus
being polyploid (4x=40). It can interbreed only with another species
A. monticola, the probable wild progenitor of the crop (Sauer 1993).
The cultivated peanut plant is an erect or prostrate, usually 15 to
60 cm tall (fig1). It is sparsely hairy and, and has a well developed
tap root system with many lateral roots. Roots are usually devoid of
hairs, and a distinct epidermis. A unique characteristic of the peanut
plant is the nyctinastic movements of the leaflets (Coffelt 1989). The
leaf blade consists of four oval to obvate leaflets attached to the
midrib by small articulations which allow for movement. During dark
periods and hot sunny days, the paired leaflets are close together in
a vertical position, and on a normal day leaflets are separated from
each other in a horizontal position.
Fig 1. The Peanut plant
(Source: Kokalis-Burelle et al. 1997)
Flowers
Flowers are born on inflorescence located in the axils
of the leaves. Flowers are never at the same node as vegetative branches,
although very short internodes on some plants may make it appear that
they are (Coffelt 1989). Environmental conditions may cause the transformation
of reproductive axes into vegetative axes, but not the reverse. The
first flowers appear from 4 to 6 weeks after planting. Each flower is
subtended by two bracts; the lower, on an axis of the inflorescence
and the upper in the axil of the lower bract (fig 2). The flower contains
five petals: a standard, two wings, and two petals fused to form a keel.
There are two calyx lobes, an awnlike one opposite the keel and a broad
opposite the back of the standard. The flower has 10 stamens, two of
which are usually not fully developed. The pistil consists of an ovary,
style, and stigma. Anthesis and pollination usually occur at sunrise
with pollination taking place within the closed keel of the flower.
Fig 2. peanut flower
(Source: Coffelt 1989)
The mature pod is indehiscent legume containing one
to five seeds, enclosed in papery testas (fig 3). The seeds do not contain
an endosperm but have two large cotyledons, an epicotyl with three meristems,
a hypocotyls, and a primary root.
Varieties
The genus Arachis hypogaea has been divided into 4 different varieties
as 'Virginia', 'Peruvian', 'Valencia', and 'Spanish'. These different
types are believed to have thought to have originated in different locations.
Virginia variety may have been developed in Amazonia. The Peruvian variety
is the common type found in archaeological sites in the oases of Peru
is believed to have been developed in Peru. The Spanish variety was
grown by the peoples of northeastern Brazil. The Valencia variety may
have been developed by the Guarani peoples of the Paraguay-Praraná
basin.
The table below summarizes these varieties (Kokalis-Burelle
et al 1997)
| Subspecies |
Cultivar
|
Primary area of origin
|
|
hypogaea
|
Virginia
|
Southern Bolivia
and northern Argentina
|
|
hirsuta
|
Peruvian runner
|
Peru
|
|
fastigiata
|
Valencia
|
Peru
Brazil
and Paraguay
|
|
vulgaris
|
Spanish
|
Paraguay,
Uruguay,
and Brazil
|
The subspecies hypogaea and
hirsuta share similar morphological features as they don't have floral
axes on main axis (Weiss 2000, Bunting et al 1985). Pairs of vegetative
branches and floral axes alternate along lateral branches. The Virginia
type is less hairy and branches are short, whereas Peruvian is more
hairy with long branches.
Similarly, the subspecies fastigiata and vulgaris share similar morphological
features as floral axes are found on the main axis. There is continuous
runs of multifloral axes along lateral branches. Valencia type is little
branched whereas Spanish type is more branched.
The Virginia and Peruvian varieties are prostrate, have seed dormancy,
and require 5 to 10 months growing season. The prostrate varieties are
commonly called as runners as lateral branches remain close to the ground,
giving spreading appearance. The Valencia and Spanish varieties are
erect, have non dormant seeds, and mature in 3 to 5 months. Erect types
are also called as bunchy type as the upright growth of branches give
mature plant a tightly bunched, bushy appearance. Erect types often
have lower individual nut yields per plant than prostrate types. However,
erect types tend to have slightly higher seed oil and seed protein contents.
Spanish variety is particularly rich in oil.
Ecology
The main range of peanut cultivation is between 35o S and 40o N, but
it extends to 45oN in Central Asia and North America. It adapts to wide
range of environments. It is normally grown commercially below 1250
m, although many varieties could be found at much higher elevations
(Weiss 2000).
It is a day neutral plant and thus little affected by day length. However,
plant growth is adversely affected by low light intensity. Bunchy types
are generally more severely affected by climatic variation than runner
types. Temperature between 25 to 30oC is optimum for plant development
(Weiss 2000).
Once established, peanut is drought resistant, and to some extent it
also tolerates flooding. A rainfall of 500 to 1000 mm will allow commercial
production, although crop can be produced on as little as 300 to 400
mm of rainfall. Once pods are mature, rainfall will adversely affect
the crop as some cultivars have a very brief dormancy and germinate
under suitable condition.
References
Bunting, A.H., R.W. Gibbons, and J.C. Wynne. 1985 Groundnut (Arachis
Hypogaea L.). In Grain Legume Crops. R.J. Summerfield and E.H. Roberts,
eds. Pp. 747-800. London: Collins.
Coffelt, T.A. 1989 Peanut. In Oil Crops of the World: Their Breeding
and Utilization. G. Robbelen, R.K. Downey, and A. Ashri, eds. Pp. 319-338.
New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
Kokalis- Burelle, N., et al., eds. 1997 Compendium of Peanut Diseases.
St. Paul, Minnesota: The American Phytopathological Society.
Weiss, E.A. 2000 Oilseed Crops. London: Blackwell Science.
Contributed by Govinda Basnet
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History of use
The early records on peanut states that mani was a common food to the
Indians of South America before the arrival of Columbus and other Spanish
explorers. It was consumed as raw or roasted. It was also considered
of having soporific, and anti inflammatory effect (Smith 2002). In Peru
and Brazil it was used to prepare peanut milk and products similar to
traditional almond confectionary. It was taken by Portuguese to Africa
where it became an important part of diet. The peanut paste was used
to thicken soups, stews and similar dishes, and the oil was used for
culinary purposes.
Before 1800, in the Caribbean and in the British colonies in North
America slaves grew peanuts on small garden. Peanuts were used to feed
slaves almost from the earliest days of the European slave trade. White
colonists do not appear to have consumed peanuts directly, but they
used peanut to fatten swine and poultry (smith 2002). Early records
of peanut use in the US shows that it was used as beverage as a good
substitute for chocolate. Throughout the nineteenth century, peanuts
were mainly sold roasted in their shells.
Utilization of Products
All parts of the peanut plant can be easily utilized. The vines with
leaves make an excellent high protein hay for horses and ruminant livestock.
The shells or pods can be used as feed for livestock, burned for fuel,
made into particle board, and many other uses. The peanut is grown mainly
for human consumption of the seed. The seed can be used directly for
food and crushing to produce oil and a high protein meal. Nearly two
thirds of all groundnuts produced are crushed for oil (Bunting et al
1985). Peanut oil can be used in cooking, lighting, fuel and as a food
constituent. Peanut oil has a better keeping quality than soybean, corn,
and safflower oils and is a good source of Vitamin E. Used directly
as food, peanut is a major crop for subsistence (Hammons 1982). The
multiples uses of the peanut make it an excellent cash crops for domestic
markets as well as foreign trade.
In most parts of the world the peanut is utilized primarily as whole
seeds. The most common method of preparation for human consumption of
whole seeds is dry roasting the seed (Coffelt 1989). The peanut is well-established
snack food as fresh cooked and roasted peanuts. In the USA, the major
use of peanut is for grinding into peanut butter.
Peanut is also used as peanut flour, concentrates, and isolates. These
serve as potential extenders in many meat formulations. Peanut flour
has been used to replace part or all of wheat flour or corn meal in
making various types of breads and other bakery products. Peanut protein
isolates have for many years been used in the manufacture of imitation
milk as an extender to cow or buffalo milk. Peanut protein isolate and
peanut oil have been used to make cheese analogs for the production
of cream cheese and cheese spread products.
Nutritional Quality
It is estimated that the shell represents about 25% of the dry weight
of unshell peanut, and the kernel comprises 75%. Cotyledons are the
main storage tissues and are a concentrated source of protein, lipids,
and dietary energy. Amino acid profile of raw peanut is in many respects
inferior to the profile of raw soybean. Comparatively, the protein content
of raw peanut is only about 70% of that of raw soybean. Peanuts and
peanut protein products are low in Sulfur based amino acids. Peanuts
are a reasonable source of dietary minerals especially potassium, phosphorus,
and magnesium. However, they are poor source of fat soluble vitamins
like A, D, and K.
Peanut oil is an excellent source of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty
acids, exceeding the levels of these fatty acids in soybean and corn
oil, but significantly lower than in sunflower and safflower oil. Peanut
oil contains about 1 % palmitic acid and 80 % oleic and linoleic acid
(Nwokolo 1996).
Antinutritional Factors
Raw peanuts have some antinutritional factors like trypsin inhibitors,
various lectins. They have very low concentrations of most of the antinutritional
factors found in raw soybean. A goiterogenic factor has also been isolated
and identified in the testa of the peanut. Some saponin-like compounds
which are bitter tasting have been identified in the germ. The suggested
atherogenic property of peanut is considered an antinutritional effect.
Removal of peanut skins is usually one of the initial steps in further
processing of peanuts.
Aflatoxins in Peanuts
In warm climates, grains are easily infected with toxigenic microorganisms.
The best known toxic compounds of peanut are the aflatoxins, metabolic
by-products of the moulds Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.
There are four types of aflatoxin, B1, B2, G1, and G2. Of these four,
aflatoxin B1 is the most toxic and best known because it is a very potent
hepatocarcinogen (Nwokolo 1996).
Although aflatoxin contamination of peanuts occurs during postharvest
curing and storage, the most significant contamination usually occurs
prior to harvest during periods of late season drought stress as peanuts
are maturing. Mould infection of badly harvested and or poorly stored
peanuts occurs around 20 to 25 oC. When these mouldy peanuts are eaten
or processed into food or feed, aflatoxin poisoning occurs. Aflatoxin
is a major problem in many tropical countries Increasing water stress
during crop growth increases aflatoxin contamination in peanut. The
toxins from the peanuts can be removed by extraction using polar solvents
to which have been added 0.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.2% sodium hypochlorite.
Recipes
Hundreds of culinary uses have been developed and patented for peanut.
Following are some links to the various peanut recipes.
http://www.aboutpeanuts.com/reci.html
http://www.peanut-institute.org/recipes.html
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/plantanswers/recipes/peanutrecipes.html
http://southernfood.about.com/library/weekly/aa041397.htm
References
Bunting, A.H., R.W. Gibbons, and J.C. Wynne. 1985 Groundnut (Arachis
Hypogaea L.). In Grain Legume Crops. R.J. Summerfield and E.H. Roberts,
eds. Pp. 747-800. London: Collins.
Coffelt, T.A. 1989 Peanut. In Oil Crops of the World: Their Breeding
and Utilization. G. Robbelen, R.K. Downey, and A. Ashri, eds. Pp. 319-338.
New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
Hammons, R.O. 1982 Origin and Early History of the Peanut. In Peanut
Science and Technology. H.E. Pattee and C.T. Young, eds. Pp. 1-20. Yoakum,
Tex.: American peanut Research and Education Society, Inc.
Nwokolo, E. 1996 Peanut (Arachis Hypogaea L.). In Food and Fee from
Legumes and Oilseeds. E. Nwokolo and J. Smartt, eds. Pp. 49-63. New
York: Chapman and Hall.
Smith, A.F. 2002 Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea.
Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
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Peanut production process, from planting to storage, is affected by
different types of stresses. These stresses are caused both by biotic
and abiotic agents. Biotic agents include insects, fungi, bacteria,
virus, nematodes, weeds and abiotic factors include physiological and
environmental stresses.
Different parts of the plant are susceptible to different types of
stresses. The peanut seed is affected by soil borne pathogens, preharvest
and post harvest insects, and environmental conditions. During the early
stages of growth roots are susceptible to infection several soil borne
pathogen. Aboveground, the crown area of the plant stem is subject to
attack by insects and various soil microorganisms. The list below provides
an example of various agents that harm the peanut crop.
The basic idea to develop a successful crop management strategy is
to provide an environment that allows maximum yield with reduced risks
of crop loss, proper use of pesticides, and minimal environmental contamination.
A successful health management must include management of: physiological
and environmental disorders, weeds, preharvest and postharvest insects,
viral diseases, bacterial diseases, foliar pathogens, soil borne fungal
pathogens and nematodes, and mycotoxins producing fungi.
Insects pests
Insect pests damage almost every part of the peanut plant. Following
is the list of insects causing damage to peanut.
|
Insect
|
Latin Name
|
Damage
|
|
Foliage feeders
|
|
|
|
|
Groundnut leaf miner
|
Aproaerema
modicella
|
feeds between the epidermal layers
of the leaf
|
|
|
Rednecked
peanutworm
|
Stegasta
bosqueella
|
feeds exclusively within a developing
terminal
|
|
|
Corn earworm
|
Helicoverpa
zea
|
consumes terminal, young foliage,
and immature pegs
|
|
|
Army worms
|
Spodoptera
spp
|
larvae feeds on the underside
of leaflets, terminals
|
|
|
Bollworm, earworm
|
Helicoverpa
zea
|
larvae feed on flowers and pods
|
|
|
Velvet bean caterpillar
|
Anticarsia
gemmatalis
|
larvae feed on terminal and young
foliage
|
|
|
Hairy caterpillars
|
Amsacta
spp
|
larvae move and feed en masse
on the underside of leaves
|
|
Intracellular feeders
|
|
|
|
|
Leafhoppers
|
Empoasca
spp
|
adults
and nymphs feed on the undersides of leaves by inserting mouthparts.
|
|
|
Tobacco thrips
|
Franklineilla
fusca, Thrips palmi, Scirtothrips dorsalis
|
feed in leafbuds
and flowers
|
|
|
Groundnut aphid
|
Aphis craccivora
|
adults and nymphs feed on leafbuds
and unfurling leaves
|
|
|
Twospotted
spider mite
|
Tetranychus
urticae
|
adult
injures plant by inserting the piercing mouth parts into plant
cells and sucking the contents.
|
|
|
White flies
|
Bemicia
tabaci
|
remove photosynthates
directly from the phloem
|
|
Root and pod feeders
|
|
|
|
|
Lesser Cornstalk borer
|
Elasmopalpus
lignosellus
|
larvae feed on roots and developing
pods
|
|
|
Southern corn rootworm
|
Diabortica
undecimpunctata howardi
|
adult
beetles feed on leaves, and larvae feed on below ground.
|
|
|
White grub
|
Species of Lachnosterna,
Adoretus, Anomala, Leucophilis
|
larvae feed on the taproots
|
|
|
Termites
|
Species of Odontotermes,
Microtermes
|
damage pods by scarifying the
pod, and by feeding on the seed
|
|
|
Wireowrm
|
Species of Conoderus
|
damage all underground parts
|
|
|
Millipeds
|
Peridontopyge
spp
|
feed on seedling plants, and
developing pods
|
|
Stored-product feeders
|
|
|
|
|
Indianmeal
moth
|
Plodia
interpunctella
|
larvae feed on shelled seeds,
or seeds on damaged or cracked pods
|
|
|
Rice moth
|
Corcyra
cephalonica
|
larvae feed loose shelled seed
or on seed in cracked pods
|
|
|
Flour beetles
|
Tribolium
castaneum, T.confusum
|
adults and larvae feed on the
surface of the seed and burrow into the seed
|
|
|
Groundnut bruchid
|
caryedon
serratus
|
attacks unshelled, undamaged
pods
|
|
|
Pod sucking bug
|
Elasmolomus
sordidus
|
adult
pierces a pod with mouth parts and feeds on the oil.
|
Diseases
Fungal Disease and Causal Agents
Anthracnose Colletotrichum mangenoti, C. arachidis, and C.dematium
Aspergillus crown rot aspergillus niger, A. pulverulentus
Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria arachidis
Black hull Thielaviopsis basicola
Botrytis blight Botrytis cinerea
Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina
Cylindrocladium black rot Cylindrodium crotalariae
Diplodia collar rot Diplodia gossypina
Early leaf spots Cercospora archidicola
Late leaf spots cercosporidium personatum
Fusarium wilt Fusarium spp.
Melanosis Stemphylium botryosum
Foot rot Neocosmospora vasinfecta
Peanut pod rot Pythium myriotylum, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium solani
Powdery mildew Oidium arachidis
Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae
Sclerotinia blight Sclerotinia minor
Stem rot Sclerotium rolfsii
Rust Puccinia arachidis
Web blotch Phoma arachidicola
Yellow mold and aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus
Diseases caused by Bacteria and causal agents
Bacterial leaf spot Pseudomonas spp
Bacterial wilt Pseudomonas solanacearum
Diseases caused by virus and vectors
Tomato spotted wilt and peanut bud necrosis, Frankliniella fusca, F.
Occidentalis, Thrips palmi
Peanut clump, Polymixa graminis
Groundnut rosette Aphis craccivora
Peanut mottle Aphis craccivora, A. gossypii, Myzus persicae, Hyperomyzus
lactucae, Rhopalosiphum padi, R. maidis
Peanut stripe, Aphids
Peanut stunt, Aphis cracciovra, A. spiraecola, and Myzus persicae
Cowpea mild mottle Bemicia tabaci
Peanut chlorotic streak Aphis craccivora, Myzus persicae, Bemisia tabaci
Diseases caused by Nematodes
Root knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp
Root lesion nematodes Pratylenchus brachyurus
Sting nematodes Belonolaimus spp
Ring nematodes Criconemella ornate
Peanut pod nematodes Ditylenchus africanus
Abiotic diseases
Drought stress
Frost injury
Genetic disorders
Hail injury
Herbicidal injury
Lightning injury
Nutrient imbalances, Ozone damage
Weeds
The ten most common weeds in peanut are:
Nutsedge Cyperus spp
Morning glory Ipomoea spp
Pigweed Aamranthus spp
Crabgrass Digitaria spp
Teaxas Panicum Panicum texanum
Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium
Florida beggarweed Desmodium tortuosum
Prickly sida Sida spinosa
Sicklepod Cassia obtusifolia
Goosegrass Elusine indica
Parasitic flowering plants
Alectra vogelli is a root parasite
Striga spp. general parasite
Cuscutta campestris is a stem parasite
References
Kokalis-Burelle, N. et al. (eds.)
1997 Compendium of peanut diseases. St. Paul, Minnesota: APS Press
Melouk, Hassan and Shokes, Frederick (eds.)
1995 Peanut Health Management. St. Paul, Minnesota: APS Press
Web Resources
"Peanut
Disease Atlas" website maintained by Thomas A. Lee, Jr., C.
Wendell Horne and Mark C. Black (last accessed on January 2, 2004)
Contributed by Govinda Basnet
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F.K. Tsigbey . R. L. Brandenburg , and V. A.
Clottey. 2003. Peanut Production Methods in Northern Ghana and Some
Disease Perspectives.
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